Almudena BLASCO VALLÉS

Original title: Prefacio: Consideraciones sobre las Cruzadas

Ricardo da COSTA

Original title: Apresentação: A Cruzada renasceu?

Sophia MENACHE

Original title: O amor de Deus ou o ódio ao seu inimigo? As vozes emocionais das Cruzadas

The present paper attempts to investigate three cornerstones of the history of the early crusades from a wider range of emotions while focusing on [1] the call to the crusade and the conquest of Jerusalem, [2] the fall of Edessa and, subsequently, the Second Crusade and its outcomes, and [3] the Christian defeat at the Horns of Hattin. Less than a century before the crusades, different groups in Christian society had been the target of the same pejorative emotions that were later used to denounce and reproach the Moslems. These terms should therefore be seen and analyzed, not to produce a superficial moral reading of the vilification of the Moslems, but as an essential part of the thesaurus in which Christian society analyzed itself. In fact, the use of the same Augustinian emotional index transforms negative attitudes toward the Moslems into an act of inverted inclusion of the Moslems within the Christian sphere; in other words, using illusionary inclusion in order to exclude. This inverted inclusion means that within its inner discourse, Christian society defeated the Moslems symbolically, independently of the real outcome on the battlefield. The transformation of the crusaders from esterners into Easterners in Fulcher’s eschatology (note 45) is a conscious practice of erasing the “other” by expropriating its identity. This was not, however, an act of including the Easterner into the crusaders’ weltanschauung, but a symbolic denial that further served to exclude the Easterners altogether.

Francisco FRANCO-SÁNCHEZ

Original title: El ğihād y su sustituto el ribāṭ en el Islam tradicional: Evolución desde un espíritu militarista y colectivo hacia una espiritualidad interior e individual

At the beginning Ğihād was in Islam a militaristic spirit that articulates a defence of the religion, or what is the same, of the Muslim State, by means of arms. When in the first century of the Hegira it becomes impossible to continue the expansion of the Islamic State, the Ribāṭ was articulated as a substitute for Ğihād. It involved the internalization of the same spirituality, now understood not as a collective and official precept, but as individual command and internal fight. We revise the data from Arab sources about the Ribāṭ and its performance in the building known as rābiṭa. The function of these buildings, historiography, juridical frame, religious life and the economy related to the rābiṭa-s are explained. Toponymic traces and material vestiges of the rābiṭa-s at the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula, especially those found in Guardamar del Segura are explained as well.

Alejandro MORIN

Original title: Cynocephalus in commentario? El carácter monstruoso o salvaje de los infieles como argumento jurídico

For some years a type of historiographical approach has rendered fruits about the relation Christians-Muslims, focused on the perception/construction of alterity. This is evident in different works that analyze the medieval “images” of the unbelievers created in a hostile context. But this approach can ignore the rhetorical-juridical inscription of the description of the unbeliever in teratological or wild terms. What seems an ethnographic reference that says much about the medieval Christian ethnocentrism may in certain context operate as a juridical argument that enables one type or another of justification for the conquest on unchristians. We pose here the convenience of bringing together two subjects that medievalists had developed separately: the history of the Christian stereotypes of Saracen “monstrosity” and the history of medieval law.

Matteo RASCHIETTI

Original title: Jerusalém há de ser liberada e Deus há de ser amado: Bernardo de Claraval entre a Segunda Cruzada e a Mística Cisterciense

The XIIth century has been one of the most lively, turbulent and creative time of Middle Age. The reformation of the church, begun on first half of the XIth century, reaches its result, most of all in monastic sphere. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) was a great action man, incarnating the religious spirit of his epoch, and one of the founders of medieval mystic too. Preacher of the Second Crusade, which failed, wrote on De diligendo Deo the syntheses of his mystic experience that is also a summa of monastic experience as a whole.

Aurelio PASTORI RAMOS

Original title: La Segunda Cruzada y su fracaso en De Consideratione ad Eugenium Papam de Bernardo de Claraval

Regarding the history of the Crusades, the abbot of Clairvaux is often cited as the preacher of the second Crusade. Less studied however is the analysis of the reasons of the failure of this Crusade, written by himself.

Leandro Duarte RUST

Original title: A medida da Terra Santa: a bula Ad Liberandam (1215) e a institucionalização das cruzadas

This article presents some reflections on the existing relations between the pontifical politics and the history of the crusades in the early 13th century. We appeal to the analysis of Ad Liberandam, the bulla issued in 1215 by Innocent III to the convening of a new crusade to Jerusalem, in order to demonstrate how the Papacy transformed that notorious military mobilization in an unparalleled opportunity for the exercise and strengthening of the papal government. Through this association, the crusading expeditions were exposed to a vigorous process of institutionalization. This process allowed the Holy See redraws its media for social control and the strategies of domination projected by the popes on the seigniorial society.

Susan BALDERSTONE

Original title: “Ao sabor sírio”: as igrejas dos cruzados no Oriente latino como expressões da arquitetura ortodoxa

This paper explores how the architectural expression of orthodoxy in the Eastern churches was transferred to Europe before the Crusades and then reinforced through the Crusaders’ adoption of the triple-apsed east end “in the Syrian Taste”2 in the Holy Land. Previously, I have shown how it can be deduced from the archaeological remains of churches from the 4th-6th C that early church architecture was influenced by the theological ideas of the period3. It is proposed that the Eastern orthodox approach to church architecture as adopted by the Crusaders paralleled the evolution of medieval theology in Europe and can be seen as its legitimate expression.

María LAURA MONTEMURRO

Original title: Monedas de las Cruzadas: introducción al análisis de su iconografía y estilo

The numismatic material offers an outstanding opportunity for iconographic studies, often neglected by art historians. For ages, coinage has not simply served as a medium of financial or commercial exchange, but also (and more interestingly for the art historian) as a vehicle that conveyed, through a wide territorial span, design and iconographic concepts of enormously influential gravitation. Crusader coins are not an exception: on the contrary, its influence in the late mediaeval coinage in regards to iconography and other devices was paramount. This paper attempts to draw attention to several aspects related to the iconography of the Crusader coins, their probable typological models and derivations, that it, its decisive influence in the later Mediaeval and early modern coinages.

Ricardo da COSTA and Armando Alexandre dos SANTOS

Original title: O pensamento de Santo Tomás de Aquino (1225-1274) sobre a vida militar, a guerra justa e as ordens militares de cavalaria

The article briefly presents the thought of Thomas Aquinas about the legitimacy of military life and the concept of just war, and its theological justification in the context of the Crusades, to the military orders. For that, initially uses the Biblical foundation. The following briefly lists some of the saints of the Church, to discuss the thought of Aquinas about the subject.

Nachman FALBEL and Vinicius Cesar Dreger de ARAÚJO

Original title: A última Cruzada de Frederico Barbarossa no Liber ad Honorem Augusti

This paper wants to study the iconography about Frederick Barbarossa’s expedition in the Third Crusade in the Liber ad Honorem Augusti of Petrus de Ebulo, composed to laudate Henry VI in late XIIth century. Thus, we looked for the comprehension of the images in various contexts: from their origins – the Norman Kingdom of Sicily – and the proper crusade of Barbarossa.

Shlomo LOTAN

Original title: Entre o Reino Latino de Jerusalém e a Depressão dos Cárpatos húngara medieval (Burzenland) – o status e Regra da Ordem Teutônica nas fronteiras do Cristianismo

The 800th anniversary of the Teutonic Order's occupation of Burzenland (Barcaság) in the eastern part of the medieval Hungary (in the Brasov region in Transylvania – Romania) will be marked in 2011. It is significant because of the role of the Teutonic Military Order as defenders of the Hungarian borders from the invasion of the Cumans heathen tribes into the western part of Hungary. Another issue of significance is the relationship between the role of the Teutonic Order located in Burzenland and their presence in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem during the thirteenth century, where they held their central headquarters and defended the Kingdom from its enemies. This article will emphasize the idea that the presence of the Teutonic Order in eastern Hungary, in Burzenland, had not been an attempt to divorce itself from the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, where it had its centre which continued to region the Order’s activities. It did serve the Military Order in furthering its institutional authority and standing amongst its membership. It also contributed to their image as defenders and promoted of the Christianity borders and it had reinforced their settlement in Eastern Europe. In this sense, their presence in Hungary was an introduction to the Teutonic tradition and military activities in the Baltic region. Burzenland was not candidate that could or would replace their Crusader Kingdom central religious and political focal place. In fact, their presence in the Latin East had remained and even was further accentuated, for their strengthening entire activity in both the Latin East and Eastern Europe as the defenders of Christendom.

Ricardo da COSTA and Tatyana Nunes LEMOS

Original title: “Com ferro, fogo e argumentação”: Cruzada, Conversão e a Teoria dos Dois Gládios na filosofia de Ramon Llull

Analysis of the Crusade’s propose, conversion and the Theory of Two Swords in the philosophy of conversion of Ramon Llull, based on the poems Lo desconhort (1295), Del consili (1311) and the works Llibre de contemplació en Déu (c.1271-1273), Liber de passagio (1292), Arbor scientiae (1295-1296), Liber de fine (1305), Disputatio Petri clerici et Raimundi phantastici (1311) and Liber de ciuitate mundi (1314).

Francesc MASSIP

Original title: Cruzada y Espectáculo. La ficción dramática como sustituta de la acción bélica (siglos XIV y XV)

Naval shows, triumphal entrances and celebrations in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in the Iberian Peninsula and thought as a dramatic fiction replacing military action is the intent of this article.

Júlia BUTIÑYÀ I JIMÉNEZ

Original title: El nou concepte de creuada al segle XV a través de la novel—la catalana Curial e Güelfa (encara sobre el primer Humanisme)

José Enrique RUIZ-DOMÈNEC

Original title: Misteriosa Nicópolis

Essay about the great day of Nicopolis, the participation of the main characters, and a new historical-anthropological reading of a crucial event inspired by Hayden White and Marshall Salins. This is a new proposal for a historical interpretation of the crusades.

Alexander FIDORA